History of Council-Manager Form of GovernmentCOUNCIL-MANAGER
CITY GOVERNMENT
History of the Council -Manager Form of Government
The council-manager form of city government is one of the
most significant advances in the field of public administration
to occur in the twentieth century. It strives to combine demo-
cratic control of a city by the electorate through an elected
council with the administrative professionalism of a highly
trained full-time city manager appointed by, and responsible
to, the elected council.
Between 1860 and 1910 the American city government was
considered to have reached its lowest levels of performance
and was seen by many as inefficient, costly, and controlled by
political bosses. Urban services such as police and fire
protection, water collection and distribution, and public works
administration in general were provided poorly and subject to
manipulation and favoritism. Reform efforts in cities began
in 1880 and while individual communities attacked their prob-
lems differently, there were two major reform trends which
stood out:
. Emphasis on local decision-making and self-government.
. Increased emphasis on executive authority and professional
management.
In 1908 the two -house (bicameral) city council of Staunton,
Virginia, enacted an ordinance which created the office of
"general manager" to be in control of all executive work of
the various departments. Reformer Richard S. Childs gave the
council-manager concept national popularity and prominence. By
utilizing business symbols and ideas, Childs argued that the
council-manager plan was similar to that of a major business
corporation; an elected board of directors (a city council)
who in turn appointed a manager (a city manager) to carry out
the policies of the board.
Between 1910 and 1920 Richard Childs worked hard to promote
the council-manager form of government. In 1915 the National
Municipal League formally endorsed the council-manager plan as
a model for American city government. By 1918 over 100 cities
operated under this form of government. Since the Staunton,
Virginia experiment, council-manager government has been adopted
in over 2,473 cities and counties throughout the United States,
Canada, and Europe. Of all the forms of city government, the
council-manager plan enjoys the greatest popularity, with most
newly incorporated cities adopting the plan over other forms
of local government.
15.
Distinguishing Characteristics of the Council -Manager Plan
The four characteristics of the council-manager form
of government are:
Centralized administrative authority.
Elected city council control and direction of the adminis-
tration.
Unification of power.
Separation of functions.
. Centralized Administrative Authority
The administration of city government is the responsibility
of a single official appointed by and directly responsible to an
elected city council. The primary purpose of this arrangement
is to remove the day-to-day administrative duties from the
political arena and to stress the need for professionalism
in administering the affairs of the city. A secondary and
important purpose of this arrangement is to lodge full manage-
ment responsibility in the hands of a single official.
. Elected City Council Control and Direction Over. Administration
The elected city council exercises control and direction over
the city manager in a variety of ways:
- Power to enact ordinances and resolutions without veto
by the city manager.
- Power to appoint and fire the city manager at any time.
- Power to control the appropriation of tax dollars.
- Power to investigate and require explanation by the
administration of city matters at all times.
- Power to direct the city manager to undertake studies and
projects in order to fulfill council policies.
- Power to establish boards and commissions and to appoint
members thereto in order to fulfill council policies.
. Unification of Power
All powers over administration and legislation are vested
in an elected city council. Unlike the national government and
16.
most state governments, the elected legislature (the council)
has ultimate power. There is no separation of powers, veto
functions, or checks and balances as found at the federal level.
Some mayors have veto power, but the "administration" doesn't.
. Separation of Functions
The primary separation of function places administrative
responsibilities, either by law, ordinance, or charter, in the
hands of the city manager while the function of policy making
rests with the elected council. The city manager is assigned
a variety of specific duties, responsibilities, and powers,
including the hiring and firing of employees, the supervision
of all departments, and preparation and execution of an annual
budget, responsibility for the enforcement of city rules, regula-
tions, codes and laws, and the presentation of reports to the
council.
The central point of the council-manager plan is the separa-
tion of functions between the city manager and the elected
council. This form of government separates the notion of
administration from that of politics. In short, the elected
representatives of the city have the duty and responsibility to
enact laws governing the total community. The execution of
such laws rests with the appointed city manager. A basic
assumption of this process is the need for professionalism in
the administration of such functions as police, fire, public
works, and other city functions. It is further assumed that
part-time city councils have neither the time nor the expertise
to administer these functions adequately on a day-to-day basis.
Role and Functions of a Policy Board (City Council)
The elected city council is the major policy-making body
of the community. The distinction between policy making and
the execution of policy (management), however, is not always
easily understood.
. The elected city council establishes broad policies
and procedures by adopting ordinances, resolutions, and
regulations. It also reviews the performance of the
city working staff who are ultimately responsible to the
city manager.
. The city manager and his personnel are given the respon-
sibility for the implementation of these policies and
procedures, under review of the council.
17.
As the city council reviews the performance of the city
manager and staff, it is in effect reviewing the personnel
to whom authority has been delegated for executing council
policies and procedures.
Council intervention, collectively or individually, in the
administration of policy, apart from prior approval and review,
has proven to be a major cause of council-manager conflict which
usually leads to a breakdown in the working relationship
between both parties. The fine line between policy making and
administration is one which must be continually established.
The presiding officer of the council (the president of the council
or the mayor) has the task of keeping this line unblurred.
When council and manager face a situation in which administra-
tion and policy making are confused, it is important for both
parties to clarify misunderstandings of respective roles.
Generally, councils as policy-making boards are seen to have
the following functions:
1. Being responsible to the electors for the excellency of
the city's overall operations.
2. Selection of a city manager and delegation to that person
of all management functions not specifically required to
be retained by the council.
3. Evaluation of the city manager's performance against well-
defined measurable performance yardsticks agreed upon by
the council.
4. Review and approval of city's goals, objectives, policies,
budgets, and operating strategies as initiated by the
council, the city manager, or the council and manager.
5. Monitoring of the city's financial posture.
6. Monitor, evaluate, and approve employee relations.
7. Continuously evaluate the city's overall performance by
insuring the availability and adequacy of required manage-
ment information to carry out this responsibility.
8. Responsibility for the council's overall effectiveness
including maintaining open communications with the city
manager and staff.
9. Effective public and community relations with all the various
publics and constituents a city has.
18.
In short, the overall function of a council is threefold:
establishing broad policies and procedures, reviewing performance,
and performing those other specific functions mandated by appli-
cable law and regulations.
,ini
19.